The Space Station Decision

Selected by Choice Magazine as an Outstanding Academic Title Outstanding Academic Title, 1991, Choice Magazine Although building a space station has been an extraordinary challenge for America's scientists and engineers, the securing and sustaining of presidential approval, congressional support, and long-term funding for the project was an enormous task for bureaucrats. The Space Station Decision examines the history of this controversial initiative and illustrates how bureaucracy shapes public policy. Using primary documents and interviews, Howard E. McCurdy describes the events that led up to the 1984 decision to build a permanently occupied, international space station in low Earth orbit. As he follows the trail of the space station proposal through the labyrinth of White House policy review, McCurdy explains the evolution of the presidential budget review process, the breakup of the cabinet system, the proliferation of subcabinets and Executive Office interagency, the involvement of White House staff in framing issues for presidential review, and the role of bureaucracy in advancing administration legislation on Capitol Hill. Comparing the space station decision to earlier decisions to go to the moon and to build the space shuttle, McCurdy shows how public officials responsible for long-term science and technology policy maneuvered in a political system that demanded short-term flexibility.

The International Space Station (ISS) is a great international, technological, and political achievement. It is the latest step in humankind's quest to explore and live in space. The research done on the ISS may advance our knowledge in various areas of science, enable us to improve life on this planet, and give us the experience and increased understanding that can eventually equip us to journey to other worlds. As a result of the Station s complexity, few understand its configuration, its design and component systems, or the complex operations required in its construction and operation. This book provides high-level insight into the ISS. The ISS is in orbit today, operating with a crew of three. Its assembly will continue through 2010. As the ISS grows, its capabilities will increase, thus requiring a larger crew. Currently, 16 countries are involved in this venture. The sophisticated procedures required in the Station's construction and operation are presented in Amazing 3D Graphics generated by NASA 104 pages of spectacularly detailed color graphics the Space Station as you've never seen it before!

Long before the NASA was the throes of planning for the Apollo voyages to the Moon, many people had seen the need for a vehicle that could access space routinely. The idea of a reusable space shuttle dates at least to the theoretical rocketplane studies of the 1930s, but by the 1950s it had become an integral part of a master plan for space exploration. The goal of efficient access to space in a heavy-lift booster prompted NASA's commitment to the space shuttle as the vehicle to continue human space flight. By the mid-1960s, NASA engineers concluded that the necessary technology was within reach to enable the creation of a reusable winged space vehicle that could haul scientific and applications satellites of all types into orbit for all users. President Richard M. Nixon approved the effort to build the shuttle in 1972 and the first orbital flight took place in 1981. Although the development program was risky, a talented group of scientists and engineers worked to create this unique space vehicle and their efforts were largely successful. Since 1981, the various orbiters -Atlantis, Columbia, Discovery, Endeavour, and Challenger (lost in 1986 during the only Space Shuttle accident)- have made early 100 flights into space. Through 1998, the space shuttle has carried more than 800 major scientific and technological payloads into orbit and its astronaut crews have conducted more than 50 extravehicular activities, including repairing satellites and the initial building of the International Space Station. The shuttle remains the only vehicle in the world with the dual ability to deliver and return large payloads to and from orbit, and is also the world's most reliable launch system. The design, now almost three decades old, is still state-of-the-art in many areas, including computerized flight control, airframe design, electrical power systems, thermal protection system, and main engines. This significant new study of the decision to build the space shuttle explains the shuttle's origin and early development. In addition to internal NASA discussions, this work details the debates in the late 1960s and early 1970s among policymakers in Congress, the Air Force, and the Office of Management and Budget over the roles and technical designs of the shuttle. Examining the interplay of these organizations with sometimes conflicting goals, the author not only explains how the world's premier space launch vehicle came into being, but also how politics can interact with science, technology, national security, and economics in national government.

This remarkable book gives a comprehensive account of the longest manned space mission of the time. It details for the first time the people involved and the crews assigned to operate the first space station Salyut. The book portrays the selection of the crews, dramatic flights and tragedy of Soyuz 11. Biographies of the Soyuz 11 cosmonauts are published for the first time in English. The book relates discussions between the key personnel, and investigates the causes of the tragedy. The book ends with memories of all those affected by the DOS program and the tragedy of Soyuz 11 and looks forward to a continuation of the historic mission of Salyut.

This insider's account, a penetrating view of science policy and politics during two presidencies, captures the euphoria that characterized the space program in the late seventies and early eighties and furnishes an invaluable perspective on the Challenger tragedy and the future of the United States in space. President Reagan's approval of $8 billion for the construction of a permanently manned orbiting space station climaxed one of the most important political and technological debates in the history of the U.S. program in space. In The Space Station the story of this debate is told by Hans mark, who had major roles in the development of the space shuttle from its beginnings in the sixties and who bore a primary responsibility for overseeing the space station project during the decisive years from 1981 to 1984. Mark's appointment to the post of deputy administrator of NASA capped a career devoted to the development and management of space technology—he served as director of NASA's Ames Research Center, then as under secretary and later secretary of the U.S. Air Force. Serving under both President Carter and President Reagan, mark is uniquely able to chronicle the intricate process by which the space shuttle became a reality and the space station an acknowledged goal of the American space effort. A scientist by training, Mark's account of his career in the space program is the story of a personal dream as well as the story of a vast public enterprise whose human side is only now being fully appreciated.

This NASA report presents a fascinating history of the decision to proceed with the Space Shuttle program. Contents: Chapter 1 - Space Stations and Winged Rockets * The Collier's Series * Background to the Space Station * Winged Rockets: The Work of Eugen Sanger * The Navaho and the Main Line of American Liquid Rocketry * The X-15: An Airplane for Hypersonic Research * Lifting Bodies: Wingless Winged Rockets * Solid-Propellant Rockets: Inexpensive Boosters * Dyna-Soar: A Failure in Evolution * Chapter 2 - NASA's Uncertain Future * Technology Bypasses the Space Station * Apollo Applications: Prelude to a Space Station * Space Station Concepts of the 1960s * Early Studies of Low-Cost Reusable Space Flight * Two Leaders Emerge: Max Hunter and George Mueller * NASA and the Post-Apollo Future . * Chapter 3 - Mars and Other Dream Worlds * Nuclear Rocket Engines * A New Administrator: Thomas Paine * Space Shuttle Studies Continue * Space Shuttle Policy: Opening Gambits * Paine Seeks a Space Station * Space Shuttles Receive New Attention * Space Task Group Members Prepare Plans * Agnew Leads a Push Toward Mars * Chapter 4 - Winter of Discontent * The Sixties * Mars: The Advance * Mars: The Retreat * The Turn of Congress * Paine Leaves NASA * Chapter 5 - Shuttle to the Forefront * The Air Force in Space * The Air Force and NASA * A New Shuttle Configuration * Station Fades; Shuttle Advances * The Space Shuttle Main Engine * Chapter 6 - Economics and the Shuttle * Why People Believed in Low-Cost Space Flight * The Shuttle Faces Questions * Change at NASA and the Bureau of the Budget * The Fall of the Two-Stage Fully-Reusable Shuttle * Chapter 7 - Aerospace Recession * The Boeing 747 * The Supersonic Transport (SST) * The Lockheed L-1011 * Aftermaths * Chapter 8 - A Shuttle to Fit the Budget * The Orbiter: Convergence to a Good Solution * The Booster: Confusion and Doubt * End Game in the Shuttle Debate * TAOS: A New Alternative * A Time to Decide * Chapter 9 - Nixon's Decision * Nixon and Technology * Space Shuttle: The Last Moves * The Hinge of Decision * Loose Ends I: A Final Configuration * Loose Ends II: NERVA and Cape Canaveral * Awarding the Contracts. The Space Shuttle took shape and won support, and criticism, as part of NASA's search for a post-Apollo future. As with the Army and Navy in World War II, NASA had grown rapidly during the 1960s. Similarly, just as those military services saw a sharp falloff in funding in the wake of victory, the success of the piloted Moon landings brought insistent demands that NASA should shrink considerably. In facing those demands, and in overcoming them to a degree, NASA established itself as a permanent player in Washington. During 1969, with Nixon newly elected and the first astronauts setting foot on the Moon, NASA Administrator Thomas Paine led a push for a future in space that promised to be expansive. He aimed at nothing less than a piloted expedition to Mars, propelled by nuclear rocket engines that were already in development. En route to Mars, he expected to build space stations and large space bases. Almost as an afterthought, he expected to build a space shuttle as well, to provide low-cost flight to these orbiting facilities. Soon after Neil Armstrong made his one small step in the lunar Sea of Tranquility, Paine received a cold bath in the Sea of Reality. Nixon's budget director, Robert Mayo, chopped a billion dollars from Paine's request. This brought an end to NASA's hopes for a space base and for flight to Mars. It appeared possible, however, to proceed with the space station and the shuttle, as a joint project. The shuttle drew particular interest within the Air Force, which saw it as a means to accomplish low-cost launches of reconnaissance satellites and other military spacecraft.

This case study on the International Space Station considers what many believe to have been the ultimate international engineering project in history. The initial plans involved the direct participation of 16 nations, 88 launches and over 160 spacewalks-more space activities than NASA had accomplished prior to the 1993 International Space Station decision. Probably more important was the significant leap in System Engineering (SE) execution that would be required to build and operate a multi-national space station. In a short period of time, NASA and its partners had to work out how to integrate culturally different SE approaches, designs, languages and operational perspectives on risk and safety. The International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) defines Systems Engineering (SE) as an "interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful systems. It focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, and then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem: operations, performance, test, manufacturing, cost and schedule, training and support, and disposal." One of the objectives of the Air Force Center for Systems Engineering (AFCSE) is to develop case studies focusing on the application of systems engineering principles within various aerospace programs. The intent of these case studies is to examine a broad spectrum of program types and a variety of learning principles using the Friedman-Sage Framework to guide overall analysis. These cases support practitioners of systems engineering and are also used in the academic instruction in systems engineering within military service academies and at both civilian and military graduate schools. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES * General Systems Engineering Process * Case Studies * Framework for Analysis * ISS Major Learning Principles and Friedman-Sage Matrix * Historical Background * Soviet Space Stations * Skylab * Space Station Freedom * Shuttle-Mir Program * Space Station Freedom Redesign * Budget * Studies/Review Panels * Changes from SSF to ISS * NASA Systems Engineering Environment * NASA Management Approach * NASA Center Approaches * System Engineers and the Experience Chain * Systems Engineering Challenges of the ISS * Systems Engineering Process * International Partners * Safety/Risk approaches * FULL SCALE DEVELOPMENT * Major ISS Modules * Zarya Control Module * Unity Node * Zvezda Service Module * Destiny Laboratory Module * Canadian Space Robotics System * Quest Joint Airlock * Russian Pirs Docking Compartment * Columbus Laboratory * Kibo Japanese Experimental Laboratory * Cupola * Russian Multi-Purpose Laboratory Module * Multi-Purpose Logistics Module * Launch Services * Shuttle * Russian Vehicles * Japanese Projects * European Projects * Commercial Capabilities * Development Challenges * Technology Readiness and Obsolescence * Use of Probabilistic Risk Assessment * Russian Contribution and Risk * Spiral Construction Approach and Multi-configuration issues * Computer Hardware and Software * Power Systems * Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Protection * Test and Integration * Execution Issues * Unrealistic Estimates for Cost and Schedule * Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act * ISS Logistical Support * Handling a Major Computer Failure * Transportation * Anomaly Resolution and the Columbia Accident * Major Risks to the ISS * Long Term Outlook * Lessons Learned * ACRONYMS * SPACELAB MISSIONS * PHASE ONE-SHUTTLE-MIR MISSIONS * MISSION SUMMARIES

Currently, perhaps the most complicated and challenging undertaking in outer space is the building of the International Space Station, the ISS. The recent decision to use the ISS also as a facility for pre-commercial research and development in a microgravity environment, inviting commercial enterprise on board, only enhanced such complications and challenges. As a consequence, the major question arises to what extent these are held in check by a sound and effective legal and regulatory regime, e.g. pertaining to criminal liability or intellectual property rights. The present book offers the first overview of applicable law and regulation which is not merely superficial, as well as some directions for future legislative and regulatory developments, written by a number of highly reputed experts in space law. The analysis, finally, is with a clear focus on the European situation in view of the particularities which increasing ESA and EU involvement in space activities bring with them.

One of Literary Hub’s August “Best Sci-Fi and Fantasy Books” | Geek Tyrant’s “The Most Highly Anticipated Sci-Fi and Fantasy Books of August 2021” | Gizmodo’s “49 New Sci-Fi and Fantasy Books to Keep You Turning Pages in August” When evil forces are going unchecked on Earth, a principled astronaut makes a spilt-second decision to try to seek justice in the only place she knows how—the International Space Station. Walli Beckwith is a model astronaut. She graduated at the top of her class from the Naval Academy, had a successful career flying fighter jets, and has spent more than three hundred days in space. So when she refuses to leave her post aboard the International Space Station following an accident that forces her fellow astronauts to evacuate, her American and Russian colleagues are mystified. For Walli, the matter at hand feels all too clear and terrifying for her to be worried about ruining her career. She is stuck in a race against time to save a part of the world that seems to have been forgotten—and also the life of the person she loves the most. She will go to any length necessary, using the only tool she has, to accomplish what she knows is right.