Protected Areas Wildlife Corridors And Large Mammal Conservation In East Africa

This dissertation assesses aspects of biodiversity conservation in East Africa from three angles: 1) protected area representation and effectiveness, 2) wildlife corridors, and 3) large mammal sensitivity to humans in savanna ecosystems. I first consider protected area representation and effectiveness across East Africa (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda – 1,722,114 km2) (Riggio et al. under review; Chapter 1). Protected areas are the cornerstone of in situ conservation and their effective management is critical for maintaining biodiversity in the long term. East Africa contains a network of 1,776 protected areas (including 186 protected areas with IUCN management categories I through IV) covering more than 27% of its terrestrial area. However, many of these protected areas were established before the advent of modern conservation biology, and several are now threatened by land conversion fueled by rapid human population growth. Here I document the extent to which East African protected areas encompass ecoregions and endemic terrestrial vertebrate taxa and, using new land conversion data derived from high spatial resolution satellite images, I assess how they have been encroached upon by agriculture and other land use. I find that East African protected areas cover most ecoregions well (>10% threshold of ecoregion representativeness set by the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Target 11), some very well (>90% - Rwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands and East African montane moorlands), but Masai xeric grasslands and shrublands, Somali Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets, and Southern Swahili coastal forests and woodlands are poorly represented. While protected areas cover the geographic distribution of most East African endemic and near-endemic terrestrial vertebrate species, they cover less than 10% of the distribution of 47 endemic species (16% of the 303 endemic species). Encouragingly, East African protected areas are largely unconverted to human use, with only 6.8% of their total area experiencing land conversion (1.6% for strict protected areas). I then aim to assess the current state of wildlife corridors across Tanzania (Riggio & Caro 2017; Chapter 3) using Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area as a test case (Riggio et al. 2018; Chapter 2). Wildlife corridors can help maintain landscape connectivity but novel methods must be developed to assess regional structural connectivity quickly and cheaply so as to determine where expensive and time-consuming surveys of functional connectivity should occur. I use least-cost methods, the most accurate and up-to-date land conversion dataset for East Africa, and interview data on wildlife corridors, to develop a single, consistent methodology to systematically assess wildlife corridors at a national scale using Tanzania as a case study. My research aims to answer the following questions; (i) which corridors may still remain open (i.e. structurally connected) at a national scale, (ii) which have been potentially severed by anthropogenic land conversion (e.g., agriculture and settlements), (iii) where are other remaining potential wildlife corridors located, and (iv) which protected areas with lower forms of protection (e.g., Forest Reserves and Wildlife Management Areas) may act as stepping-stones linking more than one National Park and/or Game Reserve. I identify a total of 52 structural connections between protected areas that are potentially open to wildlife movement, and in so doing add 23 to those initially identified by other methods in Tanzanian Government reports. I find that the vast majority of corridors noted in earlier reports as “likely to be severed” have actually not been cut structurally (21 of 24). Nonetheless, nearly a sixth of all the wildlife corridors identified in Tanzania in 2009 have potentially been separated by land conversion, and a third now pass across lands likely to be converted to human use in the near future. My study uncovers two reserves with lower forms of protection (Uvinza Forest Reserve in the west and Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area in the east) that act as apparently crucial stepping-stones between National Parks and/or Game Reserves and therefore require far more serious conservation support. Methods used in this study are readily applicable to other nations lacking detailed data on wildlife movements and plagued by inaccurate land cover datasets. My results are the first step in identifying wildlife corridors at a regional scale and provide a springboard for ground-based follow-up conservation. Finally, I evaluate the sensitivity of the larger mammals of savanna Africa to humans (Riggio et al. 2018b; Chapter 4). Habitat loss and overexploitation are driving differential declines in vertebrate taxa but variation in responses means it is often difficult to determine where to place conservation effort. Here I present an easy-to-use method to rank the relative sensitivities of the larger mammals of savanna Africa to human activities in order to prioritize conservation activities. I first make coarse predictions about susceptibility based on species’ intrinsic ecological traits. Next I determine actual presence of these species using transect surveys within the heavily impacted Wami-Mbiki Wildlife Management Area in Tanzania, by conducting interviews outside this protected area, and monitoring changes in populations within both of these zones. Finally I use these combined data to derive a sensitivity measure than we compared to prior predictions about the susceptibility. My empirical measure of sensitivity to humans is positively correlated with species’ body mass, and home range size. The empirical data allow me to categorize these species into those that are very sensitive to humans (species in danger), sensitive to humans (human avoiders), moderately common species (human adapters), and those that are positively impacted by people (human exploiters). Conservation efforts aimed at human avoiders and species in danger are likely to have disproportionate payoffs in protecting larger mammal assemblages in Africa as these more sensitive species likely act as focal species (sensu Lambeck 1997) for management efforts. My measures combine easy-to-conduct transect data with interview data, and evaluate temporal changes to reach conclusions about how sensitive large mammals are to humans. These methods can be applied in other regions where studies are beginning to examine wildlife declines outside protected areas. Literature Cited: Riggio, J., Hijmans, R., Jacobson, A., and Caro, T. (under review). The protected areas of East Africa.Riggio, J. and Caro, T. (2017). Structural connectivity at a national scale: wildlife corridors in Tanzania. PLoS ONE. 12:e0187407Riggio, J., Mbwilo, F., Van de Perre, F., and Caro, T. (2018). The forgotten link between northern and southern Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology. DOI: 10.1111/aje/12533 Riggio, J., Kija, H., Masenga, E., Mbwilo, F., Van de Perre, F., and Caro, T. (2018). Sensitivity of Africa’s larger mammals to humans. Journal for Nature Conservation. 43:136-145.

One of the biggest threats to the survival of many plant and animal species is the destruction or fragmentation of their natural habitats. The conservation of landscape connections, where animals, plants, and ecological processes can move freely from one habitat to another, is therefore an essential part of any new conservation or environmental protection plan. In practice, however, maintaining, creating, and protecting connectivity in our increasingly dissected world is a daunting challenge. This fascinating volume provides a synthesis on the current status and literature of connectivity conservation research and implementation. It shows the challenges involved in applying existing knowledge to real-world examples and highlights areas in need of further study. Containing contributions from leading scientists and practitioners, this topical and thought-provoking volume will be essential reading for graduate students, researchers, and practitioners working in conservation biology and natural resource management.

Tanzania is one of the most biologically diverse nations in the world. Traveling from west to east across Tanzania, one encounters an incredible array of ecosystems and species. Beginning at Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa that form much of the western boundary of Tanzania, one finds the most diverse and some of the most spectacular concentrations of endemic fish in any of the world's lakes. Moving further inland from the lakes, one meets the woodlands and plains of Serengeti, Ngorongoro, Tarangire, and Lake Manyara. The assemblages and movements of large mammals in these protected areas are unparalleled worldwide. Traveling yet further to the east, one comes to Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro is of sufficient height to not only contain seven major vegetation zones, but also maintain permanent glaciers. Finally, shortly before arriving at the Indian Ocean, one encounters the Eastern Arc Mountains, a series of isolated and geologically ancient mountains, which due to their height and proximity to the Indian Ocean intercept sufficient precipitation to support, in many areas, moist tropical forest. The Eastern Arc Mountains are among the richest sites biologically in all of Africa and harbor unusually high concentrations of endemic species - species whose geographic distribution are restricted to these mountains. Unfortunately, much of Tanzania's biodiversity is threatened by habitat alteration, destruction, and exploitation. The Eastern Arc forests face some of the most severe threats to any of Tanzania's biologically unique sites.

This edited volume summarizes multidisciplinary work on wildlife conservation in the Tarangire Ecosystem of northern Tanzania. By drawing together human-centered, wildlife-centered, and interdisciplinary research, this book contributes to furthering our understanding of the often complex mechanisms underlying human-wildlife interactions in dynamic landscapes. By synthesizing the wealth of knowledge generated by anthropologists, ecologists, conservationists, entrepreneurs, geographers, sociologists, and zoologists over the last decades, this book also highlights practicable and locally adapted solutions for shaping human-wildlife interactions towards coexistence. Readers will discover the reciprocal and often unexpected direct and indirect dynamics between people and wildlife. While boundaries (e.g. between people and wildlife, between protected and un-protected areas, and between different groups of people) are a common theme throughout the different chapters, this book stresses the commonalities, links, and synergies between seemingly disparate disciplines, opinions, and conservation approaches. The chapters are divided into clear sections, such as the human dimension, the wildlife dimension and human-wildlife interactions, representing a detailed summary of anthropological, ecological, and interdisciplinary research projects that have been conducted in the Tarangire Ecosystem over the last decades. Beyond, this work contributes to the debate about land-sharing versus land-sparing and provides an in-depth case study for understanding the complexities associated with human-wildlife coexistence in one of the few remaining ecosystems that supports migratory populations of large mammals. The topic of this book is particularly relevant for students, scholars, and practitioners who are interested in reconciling the needs of human populations with those of the environment in general and large mammal populations in particular.

Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa comprehensively explores the challenges and potential solutions to key conservation issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. Easy to read, this lucid and accessible textbook includes fifteen chapters that cover a full range of conservation topics, including threats to biodiversity, environmental laws, and protected areas management, as well as related topics such as sustainability, poverty, and human-wildlife conflict. This rich resource also includes a background discussion of what conservation biology is, a wide range of theoretical approaches to the subject, and concrete examples of conservation practice in specific African contexts. Strategies are outlined to protect biodiversity whilst promoting economic development in the region. Boxes covering specific themes written by scientists who live and work throughout the region are included in each chapter, together with recommended readings and suggested discussion topics. Each chapter also includes an extensive bibliography. Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa provides the most up-to-date study in the field. It is an essential resource, available on-line without charge, for undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a handy guide for professionals working to stop the rapid loss of biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere.

"An audacious and concrete proposal…Half-Earth completes the 86-year-old Wilson’s valedictory trilogy on the human animal and our place on the planet." —Jedediah Purdy, New Republic In his most urgent book to date, Pulitzer Prize–winning author and world-renowned biologist Edward O. Wilson states that in order to stave off the mass extinction of species, including our own, we must move swiftly to preserve the biodiversity of our planet. In this "visionary blueprint for saving the planet" (Stephen Greenblatt), Half-Earth argues that the situation facing us is too large to be solved piecemeal and proposes a solution commensurate with the magnitude of the problem: dedicate fully half the surface of the Earth to nature. Identifying actual regions of the planet that can still be reclaimed—such as the California redwood forest, the Amazon River basin, and grasslands of the Serengeti, among others—Wilson puts aside the prevailing pessimism of our times and "speaks with a humane eloquence which calls to us all" (Oliver Sacks).