Manned Operations For The Apollo Lunar Module In A Simulated Space Environment

Simulated space environment performance tests of Apollo lunar module in thermal vacuum environment.

Few undertakings in the history of humanity can compare to the great technological achievement known as Project Apollo. Among those who witnessed Armstrong#s flickering television image were thousands of people who had directly contributed to this historic moment. Amongst those in this vast anonymous cadre were the personnel of the Space Environment Simulation Laboratory (SESL) at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston, Texas. SESL houses two large thermal-vacuum chambers with solar simulation capabilities. At a time when NASA engineers had a limited understanding of the effects of extremes of space on hardware and crews, SESL was designed to literally create the conditions of space on Earth. With interior dimensions of 90 feet in height and a 55-foot diameter, Chamber A dwarfed the Apollo command/service module (CSM) it was constructed to test. The chamber#s vacuum pumping capacity of 1 x 10(exp -6) torr can simulate an altitude greater than 130 miles above the Earth. A "lunar plane" capable of rotating a 150,000-pound test vehicle 180 deg replicates the revolution of a craft in space. To reproduce the temperature extremes of space, interior chamber walls cool to -280F as two banks of carbon arc modules simulate the unfiltered solar light/heat of the Sun. With capabilities similar to that of Chamber A, early Chamber B tests included the Gemini modular maneuvering unit, Apollo EVA mobility unit and the lunar module. Since Gemini astronaut Charles Bassett first ventured into the chamber in 1966, Chamber B has assisted astronauts in testing hardware and preparing them for work in the harsh extremes of space.Walters, Lori C.Johnson Space CenterCARBON ARCS; COMMAND SERVICE MODULES; EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY; FLICKER; LUNAR MODULE; ROTATION; SOLAR SIMULATION; SPACE ENVIRONMENT SIMULATION; VACUUM CHAMBERS; ASTRONAUTS; ENGINEERS; HOUSTON (TX); MANEUVERS; MANNED SPACECRAFT; MOBILITY; PERSONNEL; TELEVISION SYSTEMS

Few undertakings in the history of humanity can compare to the great technological achievement known as Project Apollo. Among those who witnessed Armstrong#s flickering television image were thousands of people who had directly contributed to this historic moment. Amongst those in this vast anonymous cadre were the personnel of the Space Environment Simulation Laboratory (SESL) at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston, Texas. SESL houses two large thermal-vacuum chambers with solar simulation capabilities. At a time when NASA engineers had a limited understanding of the effects of extremes of space on hardware and crews, SESL was designed to literally create the conditions of space on Earth. With interior dimensions of 90 feet in height and a 55-foot diameter, Chamber A dwarfed the Apollo command/service module (CSM) it was constructed to test. The chamber#s vacuum pumping capacity of 1 x 10(exp -6) torr can simulate an altitude greater than 130 miles above the Earth. A "lunar plane" capable of rotating a 150,000-pound test vehicle 180 deg replicates the revolution of a craft in space. To reproduce the temperature extremes of space, interior chamber walls cool to -280F as two banks of carbon arc modules simulate the unfiltered solar light/heat of the Sun. With capabilities similar to that of Chamber A, early Chamber B tests included the Gemini modular maneuvering unit, Apollo EVA mobility unit and the lunar module. Since Gemini astronaut Charles Bassett first ventured into the chamber in 1966, Chamber B has assisted astronauts in testing hardware and preparing them for work in the harsh extremes of space.Walters, Lori C.Johnson Space CenterCARBON ARCS; COMMAND SERVICE MODULES; EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY; FLICKER; LUNAR MODULE; ROTATION; SOLAR SIMULATION; SPACE ENVIRONMENT SIMULATION; VACUUM CHAMBERS; ASTRONAUTS; ENGINEERS; HOUSTON (TX); MANEUVERS; MANNED SPACECRAFT; MOBILITY; PERSONNEL; TELEVISION SYSTEMS

A functional description of the environmental control subsystem is presented. Development, tests, checkout, and flight experiences of the subsystem are discussed; and the design fabrication, and operational difficulties associated with the various components and subassemblies are recorded. Detailed information is related concerning design changes made to, and problems encountered with, the various elements of the subsystem, such as the thermal control water sublimator, the carbon dioxide sensing and control units, and the water section. The problems associated with water sterilization, water/glycol formulation, and materials compatibility are discussed. The corrective actions taken are described with the expection that this information may be of value for future subsystems. Although the main experiences described are problem oriented, the subsystem has generally performed satisfactorily in flight.

Chief engineer Thomas J. Kelly gives a firsthand account of designing, building, testing, and flying the Apollo lunar module. It was, he writes, “an aerospace engineer’s dream job of the century.” Kelly’s account begins with the imaginative process of sketching solutions to a host of technical challenges with an emphasis on safety, reliability, and maintainability. He catalogs numerous test failures, including propulsion-system leaks, ascent-engine instability, stress corrosion of the aluminum alloy parts, and battery problems, as well as their fixes under the ever-present constraints of budget and schedule. He also recaptures the exhilaration of hearing Apollo 11’s Neil Armstrong report that “The Eagle has landed,” and the pride of having inadvertently provided a vital “lifeboat” for the crew of the disabled Apollo 13.

These official NASA history documents provide unique accounts of the Apollo lunar landing program. The first document, What Made Apollo A Success? (NASA SP-287) describes three of the basic ingredients of the success of Apollo: spacecraft hardware that is most reliable, flight missions that are extremely well planned and executed, and flight crews that are superbly trained and skilled. Contents: Introduction by George M. Low; Design Principles Stressing Simplicity by Kenneth S. Kleinknecht; Testing To Ensure Mission Success by Scott H. Simpkinson; Apollo Crew Procedures, Simulation, And Flight Planning by Warren J. North And C. H. Woodling; Flight Control In The Apollo Program by Eugene F. Kranz And James Otis Covington; Action On Mission Evaluation And Flight Anomalies by Donald D. Arabian; Techniques Of Controlling The Trajectory by Howard W. Tindall, Jr.; Flexible Yet Disciplined Mission Planning by C. C. Kraft, Jr., J. P. Mayer, C. R. Huss, And R. P. Parten. The introduction states: We will limit ourselves to those tasks that were the direct responsibility of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center: spacecraft development, mission design and mission planning, flight crew operations, and flight operations. We will describe spacecraft design principles, the all-important spacecraft test activities, and the discipline that evolved in the control of spacecraft changes and the closeout of spacecraft anomalies; and we will discuss how we determined the best series of flights to lead to a lunar landing at the earliest possible time, how these flights were planned in detail, the techniques used in establishing flight procedures and carrying out flight operations, and, finally, crew training and simulation activities - the activities that led to a perfect flight execution by the astronauts. The First Lunar Landing As Told By The Astronauts Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins in a Post-flight Press Conference, the second document in this ebook compilation, is a transcript of the Apollo 11 conference. It's a description of man's historic first trip to another celestial body by the men who made the journey. Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11, began the first-hand report to the world of the epic voyage of Eagle and Columbia to the Moon and back to Earth. After 24 hours in lunar orbit Armstrong and Aldrin separated Eagle from Columbia, to prepare for descent to the lunar surface. On July 20 at 4:18 p.m. EDT, the Lunar Module touched down on the Moon at Tranquility Base. Armstrong reported "The Eagle Has Landed." And at 10:56 p.m., Armstrong, descending from Eagle's ladder and touching one foot to the Moon's surface, announced: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." Aldrin soon joined Armstrong. Before a live television camera which they set up on the surface, they performed their assigned tasks. The third and final document, The Lunar Roving Vehicle - Historical Perspective, is a detailed examination of the success of the moon rover by an engineer at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. The purpose of this paper is to raise the consciousness level of the current space exploration planners to what, in the early 1970s, was a highly successful roving vehicle. During the Apollo program, the vehicle known as the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) was designed for carrying two astronauts, their tools, and the equipment needed for rudimentary exploration of the Moon. This paper contains a discussion of the vehicle, its characteristics, and its use on the Moon. Conceivably, the LRV has the potential to meet some future requirements, either with relatively low cost modifications or via an evolutionary route. This aspect, however, is left to those who would choose to further study these options.

The development of flight simulators from Project Mercury through the Apollo 15 mission is described. The functional uses, characteristics, and development problems of the various simulators are discussed for the benefit of future programs.

This official NASA history document is a great review of the development of the Apollo spacecraft - the lunar module (LM) and the Command Service Module (CSM) - and the overall history of the moon landing program.The foreword states: " The story of Apollo is a remarkable chapter in the history of mankind. How remarkable will be determined by future generations as they attempt to assess and understand the relationship and significance of the Apollo achievements to the development of mankind. We hope that this book will contribute to their assessments and assist in their judgments. Writing the history of Apollo has been a tremendous undertaking. There is so much to tell; there are so many facets. The story of Apollo is filled with facts and figures about complex machines, computers, and facilities, and intricate maneuvers - these are the things with which the Apollo objectives were achieved. But a great effort has also been made to tell the real story of Apollo, to identify and describe the decisions and actions of men and women that led to the creation and operation of those complex machines." The preface notes: "Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft begins with the creation of NASA itself and with the definition of a manned space flight program to follow Mercury. It ends with Apollo 11, when America attained its goal of the 1960s, landing the first men on the moon and returning them to the earth. The focal points of this story are the spacecraft - the command and service modules and the lunar module. The 14 chapters cover three phases of spacecraft evolution: defining and designing the vehicles needed to do the job, developing and qualifying (or certifying) them for the task, and operating them to achieve the objective. Like most large-scale research and development projects, Apollo began haltingly. NASA, with few resources and a program not yet approved, started slowly. Ad hoc committees and the field centers studied, tested, reported, and suggested, looking for the best way to make the voyage. Many aerospace industrial firms followed the same line, submitting the results of their findings to NASA and hoping to get their bids in early for a piece of the program."Contents include: Chapter 1 - Concept to Challenge * 1957 to Mid-1961 * Forging a National Space Policy * The Starting * The Goett Committee * Focusing the Aim * Priming the Pipeline * The Feasibility Studies * Portents for Apollo * The Challenge * Chapter 2 - Project Planning and Contracting * May through December 1961 * Committees at Work * Spacecraft Development Decision * Astronavigation - The First Apollo Contract * Contracting for the Command Module * Influences on Booster Determination * Help from the Department of Defense * Choice of Facilities * The Launch Vehicle: Question and Decision * Chapter 3 - Contending Modes * 1959 to Mid-1962 * Proposals: Before and after May 1961 * LOR Gains a NASA Adherent * Early Reaction to LOR * Analysis of LOR * Settling the Mode Issue * Casting the Die * Chapter 4 - Matching Modules and Missions * 1962 * The Team and the Tools * Preliminary Designs for the Lunar Lander * Pressures by PSAC * Fitting the Lunar Module into Apollo * NASA Adjustments for Apollo * NASA-Grumman Negotiations * End of a Phase * Chapter 5 - Command Module and Program Changes * 1963-1964 * The Headquarters Role * Command Module: Problems and Progress * Chapter 6 - Lunar Module * 1963-1964 * External Design * Tailoring the Cockpit * Hatches and Landing Gear * Engines, Large and Small * Environment and Electricity * The "Sub-Prime" and the Radar Problem * Guidance and Navigation * Mockup Reviews * The Lunar Module and the Apollo Program * Chapter 7 - Searching for Order * 1965 * Program Direction and the Command Module * Lunar Module Refinement * The LEM Test Program: A Pacing Item * The Manned Factor * Portents for Operations * more